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Monday, July 22, 2019
Theories of Learning Essay Example for Free
Theories of Learning Essay Piaget`s Cognitive Theory of Learning Piaget`s cognitive theory of learning has remained popular among educators and has greatly influenced curriculum development.  This is for the reason that traditional schooling gives utmost importance to the development of the learner’s cognitive faculties. This theory was the culmination of his systemic longitudinal research on children (some of whom were his own). Piaget`s theory describes what may be expected of children at different stages of intellectual development. According to Piaget, all persons go through a sequence of four distinct stages of intellectual development from birth to maturity.  Although every normal child passes through those stages, the ages at which some children attain each stage may vary. The four stages are (1) the sensorimotor stage, (2) the preoperational stage, (3) concrete operations stage, and (4) the formal operations stage (Piaget, 1977). Each stage is characterized by the ability to perform particular major cognitive tasks. Piaget`s approach to learning is a readiness approach. Readiness approaches in developmental psychology emphasize that children cannot learn something until maturation gives them certain prerequisites. The ability to learn any cognitive content is always related to their state of intellectual development and ways of thinking as a result of this integration. The cognitive theories of learning allege that individuals differ in their intellectual abilities because of the developmental stage they are in and their interaction with the environment. These theories further assert that cognitive growth and development are characterized by steady progression (i.e., from the simplest to the most complex). Piaget`s theory of cognitive development has guided the sequencing of learning content (knowledge, skills, processes) from the concrete to the abstract, and the selection of evaluation tools. It has also facilitated the realistic setting of educational objectives and intended learning outcomes. Skinner`s Behavioral Theory of Learning            Skinner (1953) developed the method of conditioning through what has been termed operant or instrumental conditioning. Operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior emitted by the learner which may be reinforced by its consequence. In operant conditioning, whether a response occurs in the future depends upon the nature of the contingency. If a response makes life better for the individual, it will likely occur in the future. If it makes life worse, it will likely not occur again in the future. Thus, operant conditioning makes use of reinforcements.            Anything that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated is referred to by the behaviorists as reinforcement. It is very important to note that the definition says nothing about whether the student â€Å"likes†or â€Å"dislikes†the reinforcement; whether it is deliberately given or not, or whether the behavior in question is the one desired. In operant conditioning, when a student responds with a behavior that is close to what is expected by the teacher, the latter delivers a positive reinforcer. Positive reinforcers motivate the learner to repeat the behavior with increased frequency, duration, and intensity. A reinforcer can be anything that the learner may perceive as reinforcing (e.g. grades, oral/written commendation).            Negative reinforcement on the other hand, is the process by which a response that leads to the removal of an aversive event increases that response.  Further, behavior modification is a process of shaping a person’s behavior through the acquisition of new operants through a series of reinforcement and sequencing of desired responses. It involves changing behavior in a deliberate and predetermined way by reinforcing those responses that are in the desired directions. A well-known behaviorist, B.F. Skinner, argues from an operant conditioning perspective that students must actively respond if they are to learn. Cognitivists share that view with Skinner; however, they emphasize mental activity rather than physical activity. According to the Cognitivists, if students control their own cognitive process, it is ultimately the students themselves who decide what information will be learned and how. A central component of Piaget`s developmental theory of learning and thinking is that both involve the participation of the learner. Knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but must be constructed and reconstructed by the learner. Piaget believes that for a child to know and construct knowledge of the world, s/he must act on objects. Learners must be active; they are not vessels to be filled with facts. Hence, a Piagetian curriculum emphasizes a child-centered educational philosophy and active discovery learning environments. Cognitive and behavioral theories of learning also serve as a psychological foundation of the curriculum. Following are some ways each theory can influence the curriculum development process: Cognitive theory Learning experiences will be most effective if they are adapted to the normal growth of the learners; needs, capacities, and interests of the learner. Learning experiences must be â€Å"designed to match assessment of age levels on which certain processes of thought can occur†(Taba in Ornstein Hunkins, 1988). Learning  experiences for different students should be adapted to their stage of cognitive development. Behavioral theory A motivated learner learns more readily than one who is not. Thee is no substitute for repetitive practice in the learning of skills. Information about the nature of good performance and knowledge of mistakes and success     aid learning. Meaningful tasks and materials are more readily learned than nonsense materials and those not understood by the learner. Active participation is preferable for passive reception. Learning has application and can be transferred to other situations. Since Piagetian curriculum emphasizes a child-centered educational philosophy and active discovery learning environments, instruction must be individualized as much as possible and children are given opportunities to communicate with one another, to argue and debate issues.     Further, the following are the four general principles of how the cognitive learning theory might influence the instructional design process: If learning depends on how information is mentally processed, then students` cognitive process should be a major concern of educators. Students` learning difficulties can often be attributed to ineffective or inappropriate cognitive processes. For example, disabled children process information less effectively than nondisabled children. Teachers must become aware, not only of what students learn but also how they attempt to learn it. Educators must consider students` level of cognitive development when planning topics and methods of instruction. For example, explanations based on concrete operational logic are unlikely to be effective ways of presenting ideas to pre-operational kindergarten. Concrete operational elementary school children have difficulty understanding abstract ideas that do not tie up with their own experiences. These students will learn more effectively if the same information is presented through concrete experiences prior to presenting abstract material. Students organize the information they learn. So teachers can help students learn by presenting organized information and by helping students see how one thing relates to  another. New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have learned. Therefore, teachers should help students learn by showing them how new ideas relate to old ones. When students are unable to relate new information to anything familiar, learning is likely to be slow and ineffective. Theories of learning, such as the cognitive and behavioral theories serve as a psychological basis f the curriculum. Hence, this great mass of theoretical and empirical information available to curriculum decision makers regarding the nature of the learner and how learning takes place. Answers to questions like: â€Å"What are the characteristics, capabilities, needs, and interests of children and the youth in the different stages of their development?† provide the psychological foundation of a curriculum, and serve to guide selection of curriculum objectives, content, learning experiences, evaluation scheme, and even the length of class sessions. For example, calculus has to wait until college (and only for those who are so interested in mathematics that they pursue specialized training in the discipline). Preparatory school mathematics is limited to the basic notions of counting and the relationships of numerals (bigger/smaller0 and some very basic operations with the use of concrete objects, such as beads, blocks, and sticks. Essay tests are not given to preschool pupils, and so are test items that measure complex thought processes and require long attention span. The length of class sessions per subject or course range from a few minutes on the nursery level to a couple of hours in the graduate school. Long lectures will simply not work with the very young learners; neither will jumping, hopping, and running appeal to graduate students who might already be suffering from rheumatism, arthritis, or heart problems. The learning theories, principles, and assumptions have influenced curriculum development, most especially in the choice of curriculum content and learning experiences. Just like the different educational philosophies, the different theories of learning have their respective strengths and limitations. Curriculum developers have to make their own decisions as to which views of learning they will consider in planning the curriculum. References Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibrium of cognitive structures. New York: Viking. Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behaviour. New York: Free Press. Taba, H. (1988). Curriculum development theory and practice. New York: Harcourts Brace World.
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